ARCHITECTURE OF AMBIGUITY: STATE–CRIMINAL FUSION IN CYBER ESPIONAGE OPERATIONS

Abstract

On November 21, 2025, Alexander Leslie presented Architecture of Ambiguity: State–Criminal Fusion in Cyber Espionage Operations at the 2025 West Coast Security Conference. The presentation was followed by a question-and-answer period with audience members and CASIS Vancouver executives. The presentation examined ambiguity as a deliberate instrument of state power in cyberspace, introduced a structured framework for analyzing state-criminal fusion, and applied the model comparatively across multiple state actors.